Watershed Preservation and Restoration

      This list is designed to provide a quick overview of actions that can be taken to preserve and restore a watershed.  These are commonly referred to as best management practices (BMPs).  The suggestions below are very broad, but are normally applicable.  The information provided concentrates mostly on how altering individual and small-scale behaviors can benefit watershed health.  Although categorized, many of the BMPs below are relevant for more than one section.  For further details on any of the points below please contact the Web site manager nminni@udel.edu.  Questions will be forwarded to the appropriate personnel, and a response will be given as soon as possible.
 

Agricultural
  • Ask for assistance from state offices in planning to meet run-off requirements.
  • Bioengineering (i.e. buffer streams with native, durable, non-crop vegetation).
  • Due to new federal actions regulated operations will receive discharge permits and will also be required to develop and implement nutrient management plans to guide the storage and application of manure.
  • Establish crop rotation and contour planting when appropriate.
  • Feed Management: Where possible, animal diets and feed should be modified to reduce the amounts of nutrients in manure.
  • Federal and state governments have regulated large animal feeding facilities for their pollution potential in the past, state requirements vary widely.  Federal authorities have said a single standard is needed to prevent companies from seeking out lax states and to keep areas equal economically.
  • Land Application of Manure:  Land application is the most common, and usually most desirable method, of using manure because of the value of the nutrients and organic matter.  Land application in accordance with the comprehensive nutrient management plan should minimize water quality and public health risk.
  • Land Management:  Tillage, crop residue management, grazing management and other conservation practices should be used to minimize the movement of soil, organic materials, nutrients and pathogens to surface and ground water from lands where manure is applied.
  • Manure Handling and Storage:  Manure needs to be handled and stored properly to prevent water pollution from runoff and to reduce the potential for nutrient release into the air.
  • Other Utilization Options:  In vulnerable watersheds, where the potential for environmentally sound land application is  limited, alternative uses of manure, such as the sale of manure to other farmers, composting and sale of compost to home owners, and using manure for power generation may need to be considered.
  • Prevent livestock from entering streams directly.
  • Record Keeping:  Feedlot operators should keep records that indicate the quantity of manure produced and ultimate use, including where, when and amount of nutrients applied.
  • Test soil and gauge the minimum amount of fertilizer and pesticide necessary.

General
  • Six basic programs should considered by watershed managers to promote a greater watershed stewardship:
    • Indicator monitoring
    • Pollution prevention
    • Watershed advocacy
    • Watershed education
    • Watershed maintenance
    • Watershed restoration
  • All demographic classifications of watershed stakeholders must become educated on watershed-based issues before cross-sector political and economic support can be sustained with enough strength to create enough leverage for positive change.
  • Combined sewage overflows (CSOs) exist where storm and waste water share a conduit to a place of treatment.  After storm events the combined flow can backup and spill into the immediate environment and wash downstream.  CSOs contribute to pollutant load of nitrogen, phosphorus, and bacteria in watersheds.  In order to decrease the impacts of CSOs, and the number of overflow events must be reduced via:
    • Diverting storm water pipes away from CSO outfalls and storing the excess in retention areas.
    • Establish a Long Term Control Plan (LTCP) that addresses the CSO problem and develops a plan to decrease or eliminate CSOs in a given watershed.
    • Increasing the capacity of treatment plants.
    • Installing a netting system to trap solids.
    • Performing routine CSO inspections and cleanups.
    • Prioritizing high impact CSO sites.
    • Public education concerning health risks associated (particularly for those living in affected flood plains).
  • Establish a source water protection program.
  • Erosion and sediment control (ESC)
    • Adjust ESC plan at construction site.
    • Assess ESC practices after storms.
    • Certify contractors on ESC plan implementation.
    • Employ advanced sediment settling controls.
    • Immediately stabilize exposed soils.
    • Install perimeter controls to filter sediments.
    • Protect waterways and stabilize drainageways.
    • Phase construction to limit soil exposure.
    • Protect steep slopes and cuts.
    • Restrict clearing and grading to a minimum.  Clearing and grading should only be performed within the context of the overall stream protection   strategy. Some portions of the development site should never be cleared and graded, or are sharply restricted. These include:
      • stream buffers
      • forest conservation areas
      • wetlands, springs, and seeps
      • highly erodible soils
      • steep slopes
      • environmental features
      • storm water infiltration areas
    • See Appendix A at the bottom of page for greater detail.
  • Integrate watershed management with planning and economic efforts.

    •  
  • Land Conservation.  Five types of land may need to be conserved in a subwatershed:
    • Aquatic corridors
    • Critical habitats (often best to maintain in corridors rather than fragmented for benefit of habitat dwellers, i.e. forest corridors)
    • Culturally sensitive areas
    • Hydrologic reserve and protection areas
    • Water hazards
    • Key Land Conservation Choices for the Watershed Manager:
      • When applying land conservation tools, a watershed manager must make some careful choices about the mix of conservation areas to protect (i.e. via easements, etc.) and what techniques to employ.  Given the large areas that need to be conserved within some subwatersheds, many different conservation techniques need to be applied to cover the patchwork of public and private lands across a subwatershed.  Some of the land conservation choices a watershed manager often has to make include the following:
        • At what scale and by what method should conservation areas be delineated?
        • How to encourage informed public participation by individuals and citizen groups in preservation efforts in an equitable manner.
        • Is a land trust available to accept and manage conservation areas, or does one need to be created?
        • What are the highest priorities for land conservation in my subwatershed?
        • What are the most appropriate techniques to conserve land in the watershed?
        • What fraction of my subwatershed needs to be conserved?
        • What incentives can be used to promote stewardship of private lands? 
        • Who will manage these conservation areas over the long-term?
  • Mitigate conflict between actors in the basin to work together to improve basin health and water quality (see Appendix B).
  • Promote conservation and conservation technology.
  • Recycle residential and industrial gray water and share that resource with appropriate users so more water can be kept in-stream.
  • Schools must (at all levels) must teach integrated planning and watershed science.
  • Storm water:
    • While specific design objectives for storm water management practices are adapted to each subwatershed, the general goals for storm water management practices are usually the same and include the following:
      • Maintain groundwater recharge and quality.
      • Protect stream channels.
      • Prevent increased over-bank flooding.
      • Reduce storm water pollutant loads.
      • Safely convey extreme floods.
    • There are numerous structural storm water management techniques for controlling storm water quantity and quality.  These five practices can be categorized into five broad groups, including ponds, wetlands, infiltration, filtering systems, and open channels.  While many advances have been made recently in innovative storm water management designs, their ability to maintain resource quality in the absence of other watershed protection tools is limited.  In fact, storm water management practices designed or located improperly can cause more severe secondary environmental impacts than if they were not installed at all.
    • Key Storm water Choices for the Watershed Manager:
      • What are the primary storm water pollutants of concern (phosphorus, bacteria, sediment, metals, hydrocarbons, or trash and debris)?
      • What is the most economical way to provide storm water management?
      • What is the most effective mix of structural vs. non-structural storm water management practices that can meet subwatershed goals?
      • Which hydrologic variables to manage in the subwatershed (recharge, channel protection, flood reduction, etc.)?
      • Which storm water management practices should be used or avoided in the subwatershed because of their environmental impacts?
      • Which storm water management practices are the least burdensome to maintain within local budgets?

Industrial and Commercial
  • Bioengineering (i.e. buffer streams with native, durable, non-crop vegetation).
  • Establish public outreach program to work with citizen groups and downstream users in a way that mitigates conflict (see Appendix B).
  • Golf courses & agricultural operations using irrigation systems
    • Reduce the level of irrigation and/or alter the time pattern to the coolest parts of the day when it is not windy to reduce water loss through evaporation.
    •  Inspect irrigation equipment for leaks and repair all faulty piping.
    •  Install best available water conservation technology.
  •  Industrial/commercial facilities
    •  Inspect plumbing fixtures for leaks and repair all faulty piping.
    •  Install water conserving devices, and update outdated plumbing fixtures.
    •  Implement a water reuse program if one is not already not in use.
    •  Pollution plumes (both surface and subsurface) can be tracked using a GIS/GPS-based water monitoring system so accountability for damage to  downstream users is recorded.
  • Make it easy for employees to live near work.
  • Sell or swap grey water on a cross-basin bases.
  • Thermal inputs must be measured carefully to minimize habitat and organism destruction.
  • Utilities offer economic incentives such as inclining prices for water as the amount of water consumed increases as part of a demand side conservation package. 
  • Velocity (vs baseline velocity) must be measured careful for stream bank erosion and habitat destruction.

Public outreach and conflict mitigation efforts
  • Do not overwhelm the public with too many messages at a time.  Have a sense of humor rather than take a lecturing tone.
  • Encourage lawn care companies to “sell” environmentally sensitive practices.
  • Establish a local watershed-based "clearinghouse" (Web site) to act as a clearinghouse for information and data sharing.
  • Incorporate ideas from successful campaigns such as anti littering and motor oil dumping programs.
  • Join or establish cross-watershed organizations that use the watershed as their common geographical unit and work together to preserve and restore it while minimizing conflict.
  • Most programs aimed at educating homeowners are understaffed and underfunded.  Most nutrient education programs get only $2,000 to $25,000 a year in funding — enough to pay for only one-tenth to one-half of a position. 
  • Raise the profile of watershed issues via print all mass media, e-mail list serves, public notices, Internet text, pictures and video, watershed conferences, and communicating concerns with elected officials.
  • Remember public education is by far less costly than watershed retrofitting.  But build knowledge from the ground up. A recent Roper survey found that only 41 percent of Americans had any idea of what the term watershed meant, and only 22 percent knew that runoff was the most common source of pollution to streams, rivers and oceans.  Till basic watershed principles are understood it will be difficult to garner enough support to make changes upstream and at home, and arguments will only result in re-stating of personal interests and disinformation of "bad science."
  • Target limited funds and staff time towards the demographic/audience most likely to be straining the watershed most (i.e. middle age men fertilizing lawns or companies producing hazardous waste).
  • Try to close the often enormous gap between the way information is provided and the way people want to get it.
  • Work with cross-administrative (i.e. multi-state or municipality) watershed authorities that attempt to reduce conflict between political units and competing land uses.

Residential

Individual behavior:

  • Approximately two-thirds of residential interior water use is for toilet flushing and bathing.
  • Check your water meter or bill to see how much water you are using. Most of us should be able to get by comfortably on 50 gallons per person per day.
  • More than a third of dog walkers admitted that they never bother to pick up their dog's waste.
  • A full 25 percent of homeowners appear to overfertilize their yards each year — and only 1 in 10 bothered to have a soil test done to determine whether any fertilizer was even needed.
  • Half of all septic system owners admitted they had not had their systems (homes and vacation homes) pumped out in the past three years. In fact, 12 percent did not even know where their septic systems were located and how much and what type of land is necessary for septic systems to be effective.  Some did not understand what is appropriate to allow in their septic system. 
  • In some cases, people may not know what they are doing to their land. For example, pesticide application may be underreported because of the recent growth of “weed and feed” products that combine fertilizer and herbicides in the same package.  Also, one Minnesota study found that 63 percent of residents reported using such products, but only 24 percent understood that they were applying herbicides to their lawn.  Also, those who rely on professional lawn care services often do not know what an how much is being applied.
  • Remember that awareness is the first step in conservation and preservation. 
Tips:
  • Apply no fertilizer or pesticides to lawns. Avoid growing lawns in regions where the climate cannot sustain them without supplemental irrigation.
  • Avoid using hoses or leaf-blowers near the street or storm drain.
  • Be sensible in water use, as the cumulative demand for water during dry weather dramatically affects the flow of urban streams and rivers.
  • Choose, in where we live, to reduce the miles we travel and prevent sprawl.
  • Choose vehicles with low emissions and inspect them regularly.
  • Cultivate lawns with the primary goal of absorbing the runoff from roofs. 
  • Cover pools and spas when they are unoccupied to reduce evaporation.
  • Direct downspouts or gutters toward shrubbery, trees, or dry wells, and/or collect the water in a large bucket for use elsewhere (non-potable water).
  • DO NOT water lawns. Only water recently seeded or planted landscapes or year-old vegetation.
  • Do not run water while shaving, brushing teeth or washing dishes by hand.  When running tap water to get it hot, divert the initial cool water into a pot or bucket, then use it to water the plants. 
  • Establish a local watershed-based "clearinghouse" (Web site) to act as a clearinghouse for information and data sharing.
  • Gradually replace lawns with native trees, shrubs and ground covers (may also reduce the need for irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides).
  • Inspect and repair all leaking faucets, pipes, hoses and toilets.  Hot water leaks not only are a waste of water, but are a waste of the energy used to heat that water.
  • Install new shower heads and sink faucets equipped with water-saving devices, such as aerators or spray taps, or retrofit existing showers and faucets with these devices.
  • Inspect septic systems annually, and pump them out regularly.
  • Join or establish cross-watershed organizations that use the watershed as their common geographical unit and work together to preserve and restore it while minimizing conflict.
  • Limit vehicle-washing activities. If you must wash a vehicle, use a bucket instead of a hose and go to car washes that re-use the water.
  • Maintain neighborhood-based storm water practices, buffers, retention ponds, or conservation areas.
  • Raise the profile of watershed issues via print media, e-mail list serves, public notices, watershed conferences, and communicating concerns with elected officials and big business.
  • Refrigerate tap water to avoid running the faucet for a long period to get cold water.
  • Replace older toilets that use more water with new, low-consumption toilets.  For older toilets requiring five to six gallons per flush, place a water-filled bottle inside the toilets tank to use less water.  Old vintage toilets use between 4 and 6 gallons of water per flush. Low consumption models use 1.6 gallons. 
  • Run dishwasher and washing machines only when filled to capacity.  A dishwasher uses between 8 and 12 gallons of water per load.  A top-loading clothes washer uses between 40 and 55 gallons of water per load.  Front-loading models use roughly half that amount. 
  • Select more drought-tolerant vegetation and plant species for landscaping, and use mulches to retain moisture.
  • Self-educate and spread your environment-friendly knowledge (such as this fact sheet).
  • Support legislation and politicians that adhere to the principles listed on this list.
  • Support watershed-based education in schools.
  • Sweep sidewalks and driveways — do not hose them down.
  • Take responsibility for disposing of pet waste, hobby livestock, litter, and chemical products.
  • Take short showers instead of baths, shorter showers and save 5 to 7 gallons of water per minute.  If you do take a bath fill the tub halfway and save 10 to 15 gallons.  Collect water in a bucket while waiting for the shower to warm up for other uses.  Consider bathing children together. 
  • Use a commercial car wash, or at least wash cars on lawns using phosphorus-free detergent.
  • Utilize mass-transit as often as possible.
  • Watering methods:
    • Deep and slow drip or trickle soakings (5-6 inches), as opposed to light watering, keeps roots strong and prevents plants from drying out.  Dig a shallow trench around plants to prevent water running off.  Sprinklers are not very as efficient as trickling, but if used make sure to avoid impervious surfaces and windy days.  Also, surface waterings encourage shallow root growth and therefore make plants susceptible to drought.
    • Lawns use more water per square foot than any other type of landscaping, but they are resistant to drought.  If a lawn turns brown it may have gone into a dormant state, so using sprinklers may cause damage by interfering with the dormant state.
    • Rain barrels and utilizing household buckets of grey water from places such as showers can cut back on tap water demand.
    • Up to 90 percent of the water used to sprinkle lawns on a hot sunny day can be lost to the atmosphere through evaporation.  Soaker hoses or trickle systems, on the other hand, reduce the amount of water used by 20 to 50 percent.  A garden hose discharges up to six-and-a-half gallons of water per minute under standard household water pressure.
    • Use native species of drought resistant plants whenever possible and set them in mulch to reduce evaporation.
    • Water during cool parts of the day, preferably morning.  Evening watering can encourage fungus and disease.
  • Work with cross-administrative (i.e. multi-state or municipality) watershed authorities that attempt to reduce conflict between political units and competing land uses and integrate cross-basin planning.

Urban/Suburban
  • Conserve open space where natural hydrologic conditions can exist and recharge of aquifers is promoted.
  • Construct and maintain sediment retention fences around construction sites.
  • Construct water and runoff retention ponds.
  • Control illegal dumping and littering.
  • Develop commercial, industrial, and residential grey water collecting mechanisms and partner with those who could use it (i.e. other industries).
  • Identify past, present, and future sources of hazardous waste (i.e. landfills, manufacturing centers, companies that utilize toxic chemicals, service stations).
  • Insist that developers use techniques to off-set the effects of adding impervious surfaces to the watershed.  More than 25 percent impervious surface in a watershed is unhealthy and is normally seen as an indicator of a threatened basin.  Impervious surfaces reduce recharge and can drop water tables, creating "flashy" stream flows, reducing  water quantity and quality, and in very large urban areas causing urban heat islands that create microclimates.
  • Monitor pre and post-development water resources (special attention paid to chemical and thermal pollution).
  • On-site small scale treatment plants to separate oil and water.
  • Street and parking lot cleanup and maintenance.
  • Vegetation (native, non-crop) buffers of appropriate size along stream banks.
References:

Blankenship, Karl et al.  October, 1999.  Accessed 11 November, 1999.  Bay Journal:  The Chesapeake Bay Newspaper.  Vol 9, 7. [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.bayjournal.com/99-10/.

Conservation Technology Information Center.  11 November, 1999.  Accessed 12 November, 1999.  Internet, WWW], Address:  http://www.ctic.purdue.edu/CTIC/CTIC.html

Delaware River Basin Commission (DRBC).  Accessed 12 November, 1999.  [Internet, WWW], Address:  http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/drbc.htm.

The Center for Watershed Protection.  12 October, 1999.  Accessed 11 November, 1999.    [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.cwp.org/. 

The staff of the University of Delaware Water Resource Agency.

Whitney Brown and Deborah Caraco.  Accessed 11 November, 1999.  MUDDY WATER IN - MUDDY WATER OUT?:  A critique of erosion and sediment control plans.  [Internet, WWW], Address:  http://www.cwp.org/Articles/muddy_water.htm.

William James Smith, Jr.  15 November, 1999.   University of Delaware Center for Energy and Environmental Policy (CEEP).
Appendix A:

Erosion control planning at a glance

Protect Waterways and Stabilize Drainageways.  Streams and waterways are particularly susceptible to sedimentation, and a designer should always check to see if they are present at a site, and whether construction activities will occur near them. If so, no clearing is permitted adjacent to the waterway. As a secondary form of protection, a line of silt fence or earthen dike should be installed along the perimeter of the waterway buffer. If work is planned across or within the waterway, special crossings and diversion techniques will be required.  There are several basic principles to consider, including:

    1.  Phase construction to minimize duration of soil exposure.  Mass grading of larger construction sites should be avoided since it maximizes both the time and area that disturbed soil are exposed to rainfall and therefore subject to soil erosion soils. As an alternative, designers should consider “construction phasing” whereby only a portion of a construction site is disturbed at anyone time to complete the needed building in that phase.

    2.  Immediately stabilize exposed soils.  The objective at every construction site is to establish a vegetation or mulch cover within a minimum of two weeks after the soils are exposed.  Given the germination time for grass, this means that if grass is chosen for ground cover hydroseeding must occur within two to five days after grading.  In northern climates, a straw, bark or fiber mulch is needed to stabilize the soil during the winter months when grass does not grow, or grows poorly.

    3.  Identify and protect steep slopes and cuts.  Steep slopes are the most highly erodible surface of a construction site, and require special attention on the part of the designer.  Steep slopes are variously defined as being 6:1 to 3:1 or greater for existing topography, depending on region of the country.  In addition, grading often creates engineered slopes on cut or fill of as much as 50% (2:1 h:v).  Wherever possible, clearing and grading of existing steep slopes should be avoided altogether.

    4.  Install perimeter controls to retain sediment on-site.  Perimeter controls are established at the edge of a construction site to retain or filter concentrated runoff from relatively short distances before it leaves the site. The two most common perimeter control options are silt fences and earth dikes or diversions. Other options are available, including using sidewalk gravel as a perimeter filter on very small and flat areas.

    5.  Employ advanced sediment settling devices.  Even when the best ESC practices are employed, construction sites will still discharge high concentrations of suspended sediments during larger storms.  Therefore, the ESC plan should include some kind of trap or basin (temporary pond) to capture sediments, and allow time for them to settle out.

    6.  Certify contractors to implement the ESC plan.  Plans do not stop sediments from eroding, contractors do. Therefore, the single most important element in ESC plan implementation is a trained and experienced contractor, as they are ultimately responsible for the proper installation and upkeep of ESC practices. In recognition of this fact, many communities now require that key on-site construction staff be certified to implement the ESC plan. For example, both Maryland and Delaware require that at least one person on any construction project be formally certified.

    7.  Adjust ESC plan at the construction site to reflect actual conditions.  Plans are usually the first casualty in any military engagement, and must be rapidly revised if the battle is to be won.  ESC plans are not much different.  An effective ESC plan is usually modified as it moves from the office to the construction site, because of discrepancies between planned and as-built grades, weather conditions, altered drainage, and unforeseen construction requirements.

    8.  Assess the ESC plan after storms.  After a storm passes, it is very clear whether or not an ESC plan actually "worked" at the construction site.  If the storm was unusually large or intense, it is very likely that many ESC practices will need repair, clean out or reinforcement.

    9.  How can local communities foster better ESC plan implementation?  Over ninety percent of ESC programs are administered by municipal, local, or natural resource or soil conservation district agencies.  According to the same survey, sixty percent of local ESC programs were mandated by State law, but provided no funding to support local implementation.  Local ESC agencies are chronically strapped for funds, and over 75% rely on local property taxes or application fees as their sole source of revenue.  ESC programs must routinely compete with many other un-met spending priorities within a community, and often lose.  Absent a dedicated funding  source, it is doubtful whether many communities can ever afford the full complement of inspectors and plan reviewers they probably need.  Given shoestring budgets faced by so many local ESC programs, how can they realistically improve the performance of ESC plans?
Appendix B:

Mitigating conflict in multi-land use and multi-administrative watersheds:
abbreviated and broad techniques for partnering

     

    Understanding conflict

    What is conflict?

     Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences.  Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available.

    The ingredients of conflict.

    Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise when we ignore others' needs, our own needs or
    the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse needs with desires (things we would like, but are not essential).

    Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the severity, causes and consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing perceptions may come from: self-perceptions, others' perceptions, differing perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat.

    Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number and types of conflicts that occur. This also influences how conflict is managed. Conflicts can arise when people try to make others change their actions or to gain an unfair advantage.

    Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important. Serious conflicts arise when people hold incompatible values or when values are not clear. Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept the fact that the other party holds something as a value rather than a preference.

    Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major influence over how they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people ignore their own or others' feelings and emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over a particular issue.

    Conflict is not always negative. In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed. Healthy conflict can lead to:

    • Growth and innovation
    • New ways of thinking
    • Additional management options


    If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus that meets both the individual's and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits and strengthens the relationship. The goal is for all to "win" by having at least some of their needs met.

    How public and private conflicts differ.  Most of us have experience with conflict management and negotiation in private disputes (with a salesman, among family members or with your employer).

    Public conflicts, like those that can occur during watershed management efforts and other environmental issues often are rooted in trying to balance environmental protection and economic growth and jobs. Keep in mind, however, that effective watershed management can result in both economic and
    environmental benefits. Some complicating factors include:

    Distribution of costs and benefits. Those who benefit may not be the same as those who pay the costs.

    Perceptions of problems. People tend to blame others for causing the problem.

    Speed of clean-up or other actions. Some will want changes to take place more quickly than others.

    Managing Conflict

    There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:
        1.  Analyze the conflict
        2.  Determine management strategy
        3.  Pre-negotiation
        4.  Negotiation
        5.  Post-negotiation

    Step 1: Analyze the conflict.
    The first step in managing conflict is to analyze the nature and type of conflict. To do this, you'll find it helpful to ask questions.

    Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage. You may want to actually interview some of the groups involved.

    Step 2: Determine management strategy.
    Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved will need to analyze and select the most appropriate strategy. In some cases it may be necessary to have a neutral facilitator to help move the groups toward consensus.

    Conflict Management Strategies

    • Collaboration
    • Compromise
    • Competition
    • Accommodation
    • Avoidance


    Collaboration - This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win." This strategy is generally used when concerns for others are important. It is also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition, some partners may take advantage of the others' trust and openness. Generally regarded as the best approach for managing conflict, the objective of collaboration is to reach consensus.

    Compromise - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This strategy is generally used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles or when time pressures exist. One drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and long-term objectives. This approach can also distract the partners from the merits of an issue and create a cynical climate.

    Competition - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with less concern for others. The outcome is "win/lose." This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate and losers may try to retaliate.

    Accommodation - This results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win." This strategy is generally used when the issue is more important to others than to you. It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you recognize that you are wrong.  The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You may also lose credibility and future influence.

    Avoidance -This results from a low concern for your group's own interests coupled with a low concern for the interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other issues are more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more information is needed. The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.

    Conflict Analysis Exercise:
    Think of a controversial issue to analyze. On a separate sheet of paper, answer these questions.

    Groups involved

    • Who are the groups involved?
    • Who do they represent?
    • How are they organized?
    • What is their power base?
    • Are the groups capable of working together?
    • What are the historical relationships among the groups?


    Substance

    • How did the conflict arise?
    • How are the main and secondary issues described?
    • Can negative issues be reframed positively?
    • Are the issues negotiable?
    • Have positions been taken and, if so, are there common interests?
    • What information is available and what other information is needed?
    • What values or interests are challenged?


    Possible strategies

    • Would consensus serve all interests?
    • Are there external constraints or other influences that must be accommodated?
    • What are the past experiences (if any) of the groups working together?
    • What is the timeline for a decision?
    • How will the public and the media be involved and informed?
    • Will an outside negotiator be needed?
    • How can citizen groups participate?


    Step 3: Pre-negotiation.
    To set the stage for effective negotiation, the groundwork must be laid. The following should occur prior to negotiation.

    Initiation - One partner raises the possibility of negotiation and begins the process. If no one is willing to approach the others to encourage them to reach an agreement, a trusted outsider could be brought in as a facilitator.

    Assessment - Conditions must be right for negotiation to be successful. Key players must be identified and invited. Each side must be willing to collaborate with the others. Reasonable deadlines and sufficient resources to support the effort must exist. Spokespersons for each group must be identified and involved. Parties need to determine which issues are negotiable and which are not.

    Ground rules and agenda - The groups must agree on ground rules for communication, negotiation and decision making. They should agree on the objectives of the negotiation process. An agenda of issues to be covered needs to be developed.

    Organization - Meeting logistics must be established, including agreed upon times and places. People must be contacted and encouraged to attend. Minutes must be taken and posted for public consumption so that information can be viewed before other meetings.

    Joint fact-finding - The groups must agree on what information is relevant to the conflict. This should include what is known and not known about social and technical issues. Agreement is also needed on methods for generating answers to questions.

    Step 4: Negotiation.

    Interests - When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated positions. Interests include the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the common goal.

    Options - To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests. Do not judge ideas or favor any of the options suggested. Encourage creativity, not commitment.

    Evaluation - Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be discussed. Determine together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.

    Written agreement - Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding. This helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated clearly.

    Commitment - Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of the agreement. Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor their commitments.

    When evaluating options...

    • Use objective criteria for ranking ideas
    • Make trade-offs among different issues
    • Combine different options to form acceptable agreements


    Step 5: Post-negotiation.
    Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some key steps include:

    Ratification - The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that have a role to play in the agreement. These organizations should be partners and should have been involved in the previous steps. Each organization will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt the agreement.

    Implementation - You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement. Communication and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried out. The partnership will need to have a plan to monitor progress, document success, resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.

    Negotiation skills. Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts develop at home, at work and when dealing with issues like those related to watershed management. When negotiating...

    Separate people from the problem. When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique needs, emotions and perceptions.

    Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions. These conflicts may exist mainly in peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put themselves into the other's shoes so they can understand each other's point of view.

    Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions, being careful not to place blame. In addition, recognize and understand the other side's emotions as well as your own.

    Interest vs. Position. People often confuse interests with positions. An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are many possible ways of addressing this interest. One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another position might be a deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organizing a clean-up day.

    Focus on interests, not positions. Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up with better agreements. Even when people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few shared interests.

    It takes time and effort to identify interests. Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to write down each group's interests as they are discovered. It helps to ask why others take the positions or make the decisions they do. Partners will have multiple interests. Interests involving important human needs (such as security, economic well-being, a sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are difficult to negotiate.

    Develop optional solutions. When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to meet as many of each side's interests as possible. Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision).

    Some obstacles to developing innovative options are:

    • Judging and rejecting prematurely
    • Searching for a single best answer
    • Putting limits on scope or vision
    • Considering only your own interests


    To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different partners. Focus on shared interests to make the process smoother for all involved. Look for meaningful opportunities, not simple solutions.

    Developing objective criteria. When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives, revisit the conflicting interests. These can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin developing criteria for judging alternatives. Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.

    Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it helps to explore the criteria used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with your partners or outside experts.